Home            Contact us            FAQs
    
      Journal Home      |      Aim & Scope     |     Author(s) Information      |      Editorial Board      |      MSP Download Statistics

     British Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology

Research Article   |   OPEN ACCESS

Effect of Methanolic Extract of Cassia occidentalis L. Root Bark on Body Weight and Selected Biochemical Parameters in Alloxan Induced Diabetic Rats

R. Garba, A.N. Saidu, H.R.Y. Adeyemi and H.L. Muhammad
Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger-State, Nigeria
British Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology  2015  2:39-49
http://dx.doi.org/10.19026/bjpt.6.5189  |  © The Author(s) 2015
Received: December ‎10, ‎2014  |  Accepted: January ‎8, ‎2015  |  Published: April 20, 2015
Back to issue  |  PDF   |   HTML

Abstract

The effect of the methanolic root extract of Cassia occidentalis L. on body weight and selected biochemical parameters were investigated. Diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal administration of a single dose of alloxan (150 mg/kgbwt), after the confirmation of diabetes, extracts at three different dose levels (300, 400, 600 mg/kgbwt) and Metformin (Standard drug) were administered daily to alloxan induced diabetic rats for the period of 14 days. The experiment lasted for 21 days and within this period both blood glucose and body weight were measured at day 0, 7, 14 and 21. The body weight of all animals except those in the normal control group reduced significantly (p<0.05) throughout the experiment. Blood glucose levels and serum levels of Triglyceride, Total Cholesterol, Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) significantly increased (p<0.05), while the serum levels of Total protein, Albumin and High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) decreased significantly (p<0.05) in diabetic rats compared to the normal control. Treatment of the diabetic rats with the extracts was able to significantly reduce Blood glucose, Triglyceride, Total cholesterol and LDL and significantly increase Total protein, Albumin and HDL. Based on the result of this study optimum hypoglycaemic activity was observed in the animal group treated with 400mg/kgbwt of C.occidentalis root extract and this did not differ significantly (p>0.05) from that of metformin-treated rats. The present study shows that the Methanolic extract of C.occidentalis root has hypoglycaemic potential and is able to correct the dyslipidemia associated with hyperglycaemia. This finding scientifically proves its use in traditional medicine for the treatment of diabetes.

Keywords:

Alloxan, blood glucose, diabetes, hypoglycaemic, hyperglycaemia,

References

  1. Ahmed, O.M., 2000. The hypoglycemic effect of curcumin and esculetin and their probable mechanism of action in STZ-induced diabetic albino rats. J. Egypt Ger. Soc. Zool., 46:351-375.
  2. Ahmed, O.M., H. Abdel-Hamid, M. Bastawy and N.A. Hasona, 2006. Antihyperglycemic effects of plantago ispaghula seeds aqueous extracts in diabetic and hypercholesterolemic rats. J. Egypt Ger. Soc. Zool., 51:371-393.
  3. Ajagbonna, O.P., F.B.O. Mojiminiyi and O.A. Sofola, 2001. Relaxant effects of the aqueous leaf extract of Cassia occidentailison rat aortic rings.Afr. J.Biomed.Res., 4(2): 120-127.
  4. Akah, P.A., J.A. Adeniji, O.A. Salawu, T.C. Okoye and N.V. Offiah, 2009. Effects of Vernonia amygdalina on biochemical and heamatological parameters in diabetic rats. Asian J. Med. Sci., 1(3): 108-113.
  5. Akomolafe, R.O., I.O. Adeoshun, A.A., Elujoba, E.O. Iwalewa and A.O. Ayoka, 2003. Effects of Cassia sieberiena leaf extracts on the intestinal motility of rat. Afr.J. Biomed. Res., 6: 141-145.
  6. Ali, S.S., N.Kasoju, A. Luthra, A. Singh, H.Sharanabasava, A. Sahuand and U. Bora, 2008. Indian medicinal herbs as source of antioxidants. Food. Res. Int., 41:1-15.
    CrossRef    
  7. Awoyinka, O.A., I.O, Balogun and A.A. Ogunnowo, 2007. Phytochemical screening and in vitro bioactivity of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Euphorbiaceae). J. Med. Plants Res., 1(3): 63-65.
  8. Berenguer, B., L.M. Sanchez, A. Quilez, M.B. Lopez, O.D. Haro, J. Galvez and M.J. Martin, 2006. Protective and antioxidant effects of Rhizophora mangle L. against NSAID induced gastric ulcers.J. Ethnopharmacol., 103: 194.
    CrossRef    PMid:16182483    
  9. Bonjean, K., M.C. De Pauw-Gillet, M.P.Defreone, P.Colson, C.Houssier, L.Dassonneville, C.Bailly, R.C.Gremers, J. Quertinleclercq, M.Tits andL. Angenot,1998.The DNA intercalating alkaloid crytolepine interfers with topoisomerase II and inhibits primarily DNA synthesis in B16 melanoma cells. J. Ethnopharmocolol., 69: 241- 246.
  10. Chichioco-Hernandez, L.C. and F.M.G. Leonido, 2011. Weight-lowering effects of caesalpina pulcherrima, cassia fistula and senna alata leaf extracts. J. Med. Plants Res., 5(3): 452-455.
  11. Chu, C.A., S.M. Sherck, K. Igawa, D.K. Sindelar, D.W. Neal,M. Emshwiller and A.D. Cherrigton, 2002. Effects of free fatty acids in hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in conscious dogs. Am. J. Physiol. Metab., 282:402-411.
    CrossRef    
  12. Daisy, P. andG.J.K. Feril, 2013. Hypolipideamic and hepatoprotective effect of Cassia auriculata Linn bark extracts on streptozotocin induced diabetics in male wistar albino rats. Asian J. Pharmaceut. Clin. Res., 6(2): 43-48.
  13. Daniyan, S.Y., J.B. Oloruntimelehin andO. Ifeadi, 2011. Antibacterial activity of Cassia occidentalis flower vegetable extract on selected bacteria. Asian J. Biomed. Pharmaceut. Sci., 1(1): 23-27.
  14. Distasi, L.C. and C.A. Hiruma-Lima, 2002. Plants Medicinais na Amazônia e na Mata Atlantica. 2nd Edn., Editora UNESP, SAO Paulo, pp: 604.
  15. Dolui, A., S. Das and A. Kharat, 2012. Antihyperglyceamic effect of Cassia sophera leaf extracts in rats with alloxan induced diabetes. Asian J. Tradit. Med., 7(1): 8-13.
  16. Doumas, B.T., W.A. Watson and H.G. Biggs, 1971. Albumin standards and the measurement of serum albumin with bromocresol green. Clin. Chim. Acta, 31: 87.
    CrossRef    
  17. Edduoks, M., H. Jouad, M. Maghrani, A. Lemhadri andR.Burcelin, 2003. Inhibition of endogenous glucose productionaccounts for hypoglycaemic effects of Spergularia purpurea in streptozotocin mice. Phytomedicine, 10: 544-599.
  18. Eghareva, H., A.C. Odigwe, M.S. Abdullahi, S.K. Okwute andJ.I. Okogun,2010. Phytochemical analysis and broad spectrum antimicribial activity of Cassia occidentalis L. (whole plant). New York Sci. J., 3(10):74-81.
  19. Elaikim-Ikechukwu, C.F.,A.A. Edem, M.U. Williams, S.O. Okori andC.J. Ihentuge, 2013. Phytochemical composition of Cassia alata leaf extract and its effect on the histology of the pancreas of diabetic wistar rats. IOSR J. Pharm. Biol. Sci., 5(5):7-13.
    CrossRef    
  20. Elujoba, A.A., A.T. Abere and S.A. Adelusi, 1999. Laxative activities of Cassia pods sourced from Nigeria. Niger. J. Nat. Prod. Med., 3:51-53.
    CrossRef    
  21. Emmanuel, S., M.S. Rani and M.R. Sreekanth, 2010. Antidiabetic activity of Cassia occidentalis Linn in streptozocin-induced diabetic rats: A dose dependent study. Int. J. Pharma Biosci., 1(4): 14-25.
  22. Foster, D.W., 1998.Diabetes Mellitus. In:Isselbacher, K.J., E. Braunwald, J.D. Wilson, J.B. Martin, A.S. Fauci and D.L. Kasper(Eds.), Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 14th Edn., McGraw-Hill Inc.,Health Professions Division, pp: 2060-2080.
  23. Gopalakrishnan, K.V., M. Sunitha, G. Akila, U. Beulah and K. Devaki, 2011. Hypoglyceamic activity of Passiflora edulis sims leaf extract in wister albino rats. Int. Res. J. Pharm., 2(9): 170-172.
  24. Graca, C., C.S. Freitas, C.H. Baggio, P.R. Dalsenter and M.C. Marques, 2007. Mikania laevigata syrup does not induce side effects on reproductive system of male Wistar rats. J. Ethnopharmacol., 72: 215-219.
  25. Gray, A.A. and P.R. Flat, 1999. Insulin releasing like activity of the traditional Antidiabetic plant Coriander sativum (coriander). J. Nutr., 81: 203-208.
    CrossRef    
  26. Gupta, R., M. Mathur, V.K. Bajaj, P. Katariya, S. Yadav, R. Kamal and R.S. Gupta, 2012. Evaluation of antidiabetic and antioxidant activity of Moringa oleifera in experimental diabetes. J. Diabetes, 4:164-171.
    CrossRef    PMid:22103446    
  27. Haraguchi, M., M.L.Z. Dagli, P.C.F. Raspantiniand S.L. Górniak, 2003. The effects of low doses of Senna occidentalis seeds on broiler chickens. Vet. Res. Commun., 27: 321-328.
    CrossRef    PMid:12872832    
  28. Harbone, J.B., 1973. Phytochemical Methods. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, pp: 49-188.
  29. Igarasi, K. and M. Ohmuma, 1995. Effect of rhamnetin and quercetin on concentration of cholesterol and lipoperoxidase in the serum and liver and the blood and liver antioxidative enzyme activities of rats. Biosci. Bio. Biochem., 59: 595-601.
    CrossRef    PMid:7772823    
  30. Ihedioha, T.E., V.U. Omoja and I.U. Asuzu, 2010. Effects of Methanolic stem bark extract of Cassia sieberiana DC on fasting blood glucose and serum Lipid profile of alloxan induced diabetic rats. Anim. Res. Int., 11(1): 1871-1880.
  31. Ilodigwe, E.E., I.C. Urukwem, D.L. Ajaghaku, I.S. Mbagwuand C.A. Agbata, 2013. Acute and subchronic toxicities of aqueous antidiabetic herbal deconcotion commonly taken in South Eastern Nigeria. Int. J. Res. Pharma Biomed., 4(4): 1256-1263.
  32. Johnkennedy, N., A. Emejulu, A. Ihim and H.I. Udujih, 2012. Influence of Gongronema latifolium on some biochemical parameters in alloxan induced diabetes. Int. Anal. Pharm. Biomed. Sci., 1(1): 13-17.
  33. Kadam, S.S., D.K. Salunkhe and J.K. Chavan,1990. Dietary Tannins: Consequences and Remedies. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp: 177.
  34. Kamalakkanan, N. and P.S. Prince, 2005. The effect of Aegle marmelos fruit extract in STZ-diabetes: a histopathological study. J. Herb. Pharmacother., 5: 87-96.
    CrossRef    
  35. Karam, J.H., 1998. Pancreatic Hormones and Antidiabetic Drugs. In: Katzung, B.G. (Ed.), Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. Appleton-Lange, pp: 684-703.
  36. Karau, G.M., E.N.M. Njagi, A.K. Machocho, N.L. Wangai, N.P. Kamau and B.P. Karau, 2012. Hypoglceamic effect of aqueous and ethyl acetate leaf and stem bark extracts of Pappea capensis in alloxam induced diabetic BALB/c mice. Brit. J. Pharm. Toxicol., 3(5): 251-258.
  37. Karau, G.M., E.N.M. Njagi, A.K. Machocho, N.L. Wangai, N.P. KamauandB.P. Karau, 2013. Hypoglceamic effect of aqueous and ethyl acetate extracts of Senna spectabilis in alloxan induced diabetic male mice. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Sci., 31(31): 1089-1095.
  38. Kawano, A., H. Nakamura, S.I. Hata, M. Minakawa, Y. Miura and K. Yagasaki, 2009. Hypoglycemic effect of aspalathin, a rooibos tea component from Aspalathus Linearis,in type 2 diabetic model db/db mice. Phytomedicine, 16(5): 437-443.
    CrossRef    PMid:19188054    
  39. Khan, Z.I., B. Nahir, Md. Abu Jakaria,S. Rahman, H.M. Chowdhury and M. Rahimatullah, 2010. An evaluation of antihyperglyceamic and antinociceptive effects of methanolic extract of Cassia fistula L. (Fabaceae) leaves in swiss albino mice. Adv. Nat. Appl. Sci., 4(3): 305-310.
  40. Luo, L., H.J. Yin, Y. Zhang, Y.R. Jiang, Y. Liu and D.Z. Shi, 2005. Effect of Gineseng fruit saponins on insulin sensitivity index in high fat-fed rats. J. Chinese Integr. Med., 3(6): 463-465.
    CrossRef    
  41. Maghrani, M., A.Lemhadri, N.A.Zeggwagh, M.El Amraoui, M.Haloui, H.Jouad, M. Eddouks,2004.Effects of an aqueous extract of Triticum repens on lipid metabolism in normal and recent-onset diabetic rats. J. Ethnopharmacol., 90(2-3): 331-337.
    CrossRef    
  42. Mahboob, M., M.F. Rahman and P. Grover, 2005. Serum lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzyme levels in male and female diabetic patients. Singapore Med. J., 46:322-324.
    PMid:15968442    
  43. Musabayane, C. T., P. T., bwititi and J. A. O. Ojewole, 2006. Effect of oral administration of some herbal extracts on food consumption and blood glucose levels in normal and streptozotocin treated diabetic rats. Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, 28 (4), 223-228.
    CrossRef    PMid:16801983    
  44. Muthusamy, V.S., S. Anand, K.N. Sangeetha, S. Sujatha, B. Arun andB.S. Lakshmi, 2008. Tannins present in Cichorium intybusenhance glucose uptake and inhibit adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adiposytes through PTP1B inhibition. Chem. Biol. Interact., 174(1): 69-78.
    CrossRef    PMid:18534569    
  45. Nahla, S.E.S. andM.A.N. Ismail, 2006. Hypoglycemic effect of Cleome droserifolia ethanolic leaf extract in experimental diabetes and on non-enzymatic antioxidant, glycogen, thyroid hormones and insulin levels. Diabetol Croat, 35-36.
  46. Nelson, R.W., S.L.Ihle, L.D. Lewis, S.K. Salisburg,T. Miller, Bergdall and G.D. Bottoms, 1991. Effects of dietary fibre supplementation on glycemic control in dogs with alloxan-induced diabetes mellitus. Am. J.Vet.Res.,52(12):2060-2066.
    PMid:1665025    
  47. Noor, A., S. Gunasekaran, A.S. Manickam andM.A. Vijayalakshmi, 2008. Antidiabetic activity of Aloe vera and histology of organs in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Curr. Sci., 94: 1070-1076.
  48. Olaitan, O.L., 2012. Patient's knowledge of causes effects and complications of diabetes mellitus in Illorin, KwaraState, Nigeria. J. Biotechnol. Pharam. Res., 3(6): 112-117.
  49. Owolabi, O.A., D.B. James, K.M. Arugo andI.I. Olaiya, 2011. Combined effects of aqueous extracts of phyllantus amarus and vitex domiana stem bark on blood glucose and some liver biochemical parameter. Brit. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 12(3): 143-147.
  50. Pedrini, M.T.,A.S. Levy, J. Lau, T.C. Chalners and P.H. Wang,2006. The effect of dietary protein restriction on the progression of diabetic and non diabetic renal diseases: A meta analysis. Ann. Intern. Med., 124(7): 627-32.
    CrossRef    
  51. Rahman, A.U. andK. Zaman, 1989. Medicinal plants with hypoglycemic activity. J. Ethnophamacol., 26: 1-55.
    CrossRef    
  52. Ranjithkumar, J., 2010. Secondary metabolite investigation. J.Chem.Pharm.Res., 2(4):371-377.
  53. Richmond, N., 1973. The use of cholesterol oxidases following saponification. Clin. Chem., 19: 1350-1356.
    PMid:4757363    
  54. Roeschlau, P., E. BerntandW.A. Gruber, 1974. Enzymatic determination of total cholesterol. J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Bio., 12: 403.
  55. Rother, K.I., 2007. Diabetes treatment-bridging the divide. New Engl. J. Med., 356(15): 1499-1501.
    CrossRef    PMid:17429082 PMCid:PMC4152979    
  56. Saidu, A.N., A. Mann and C.D. Onuegbe, 2012. Phytochemical screening and hypoglycemic effect of aqueous Blighia sapida root bark extract on normoglycemic albino rats. Brit. J. Pharm. Res., 2(2): 89-97.
    CrossRef    
  57. Santhan, J. M. andA.M. Zuber, 2013. Evaluation of anti-diabetic and nephroprotective activity of 95% ethanolic extract of canthium dicoccum whole plant by using albino rats. J. Chem. Pharm. Sci., 6(4): 218-222.
  58. Saravanan, G. and I. Pari, 2008. Hypoglycemic and anti hyperglycemic effect of Syzygium cuminibark in streptozotoan-induced diabetic rats. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 3: 1-10.
    CrossRef    
  59. Sayed, M.R., M.M. Iman andA.S. Dawlat, 2011. Biochemical changes in experimental diabetes before and aftertreatment with mangifera indica and psidium guava extracts. Int. J. Pharmaceut. Biomed. Sci., 2(2): 29-41.
  60. Sheeba, M., S. Emmanuel, K. Revathi and S. Ignacimuthu, 2009. Wound healing activity of Cassia occidentalis L. in Albino wistar rats. Int. J. Integr. Biol., 8(1): 1-6.
  61. Shiradkar, M., G. Pawankumar and K. Shah, 2011. Pharmacological evaluation of Cassia auriculata Bark extract. Int. J.Pharm. Biosci., 2(2):758-766.
  62. Shukla, N., G.D. Angelini and J.Y. Jeremy, 2003. Homocysteine as a risk factor for nephropathy andretinopathy in type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia, 46:766-772.
    CrossRef    PMid:12774164    
  63. Silva, M.G., T.P. Aragăo, C.F. Vasconcelos, P.A. Ferreira,B.A. Andrade,I.M. Costa,J.H. Costa-Silva,A.G. Wanderley andS.S.L.Lafayette, 2011. Acute and subacute toxicity of Cassia occidentalis L. stem and leaf in Wistar rats. J. Ethnopharmacol., 136: 341-346.
    CrossRef    PMid:21571057    
  64. Singh, A.P., 2006. Short review: Distribution of steroid like compounds in plant flora. Pharmacogn. Mag., 2(6):87-89.
  65. Singh, M.,K. Nagori, S. Iyer, G. Khare, G. Sharwan and D.K. Tripathi, 2011. Ethnomedicinal traditional and pharmacological aspects of Plumbago Zeylanica Linn. Pharmacologyonline, 3: 684-700.
  66. Sini, K.R., B.N., Sinha, M. Karpakavalli and P.T. Sangeetha, 2011. Analgesic and antipyretic activity of Cassia occidentalis Linn. Ann. Biol. Res., 2(1): 195-200.
  67. Sofowara, E.A., 1993. Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa. Spectrum Books Ltd., Ibadan, Nigeria, pp: 289.
  68. Sriram, N., 2011. Antidiabetic and antihyperlipideamic activity of bark of casuarinas equisetifolia in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Int. J. Pharm. Rev. Res., 1(1): 4-8.
  69. Stalin, C., P. Dineshikumar and K. Nithiyananthan, 2012. Evaluation of antidiabetic activity of methanolic leaf extract of Ficus carica in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Asian J. Pharm. Clin. Res., 5(3): 85-87.
  70. Subrahmanyam, G.V., M. Sushma, A. Alekya, C. Neeraja, H. Sai Sri Harsha and J. Ravindra, 2011. Antidiabetic activity of Abelmoschus esculentusfruit extract. Int. J. Res. Pharm. Chem., 1(1): 17-20.
  71. Szkudelski, T., 2001. The mechanism of Alloxan and streptozotocin action in beta cells of the rats pancreas. Physiol. Res., 50: 536-546.
  72. Tietz, N.W., 1990. Clinical Guide to Laboratory Tests. 2nd Edn., W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, USA, pp: 554-556.
  73. Tietz, N.W., 1995. Clinical Guide to Laboratory Tests.4rd Edn., W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA, pp: 518-519.
  74. Tona, L., K.Mesia, N.P.Ngimbi, B. Chrimwami, O. Ahoka andK. Cimanga, 2001. In-vivo antimalarial activity of Cassia occidentalis, Morinda morindoides and Phyllantus niruri. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 95: 47-57.
    CrossRef    PMid:11235553    
  75. Trease, G.E. and W.C. Evans, 1989. Pharmacognsy. 11th Edn., Brailliar Tiridel Can, Macmillian Publishers,London.
  76. Tullo, A.H., 2008. Anutty chemical.Chem. Eng. News, 86(36): 26-27.
    CrossRef    
  77. Usha, K., G.M. Kasturi and P. Hemalata, 2007. Hepatoprotective effect of Hygrophila spinosa and Cassia occidentalison carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage in experimental rats. Indian J. Clin. Biochem., 22(2): 132-135.
    CrossRef    PMid:23105700 PMCid:PMC3453824    
  78. Verma, L., K. Anirudh, K. Basant, K.P. Umesh and S.P. Rajesh, 2010. Antidiabetic activity of Cassia occidentalis (Linn) in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Indian J. Pharmacol., 42(4): 224-228.
    CrossRef    PMid:20927247 PMCid:PMC2941612    
  79. Vijayabhaskar, K.,K. Chaitanyaprasad, K. Srisailam, N.M.Arunadevi, S. Swathiand R.Subhashini, 2013. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of the extract of Cassia occidentalis (Linn.) animal model. Int. J. Res. Pharm. Chem., 3(4): 759-762.
  80. WHO, 2002. Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002-2005. WHO Publications, pp: 1-6.
  81. WHO Expert Committee, 1985. Diabetes mellitus. WHO Technical Report Series 727, Geneva.
  82. Wild, S., G. Roglic and A. Green, 2004. Global prevalence of diabetes: Estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care, 27(5): 1047-1053.
    CrossRef    PMid:15111519    
  83. Xing, J.H. and E.E. Softer, 2001. Adverse effects of laxatives. Dis. Colon Rectum., 44(8):1202-1209.
    CrossRef    
  84. Yadav, J. P., V. Arya, M. Panghal and S. Karma, 2010. Cassia occidentalis L: A review on its ethnobotany, phytochemical and pharmacological profile. Fitoterapia, 81: 223-230.
    CrossRef    PMid:19796670    
  85. Zambare, M.R., U.A. Bhosale, R.S. Somani, R.A. Yegnanarayan andK.A. Talpate, 2011. Achyranthes aspera (Agadha). Herb that improves pancreatic function in alloxain-induced diabetic rats. Asian J. Pharmaceut. Biol. Res., 1(2): 99-104.
  86. Zunszain, P.A., G.J. Jamie, T. Komatsu, E. Tsuchida andS. Curry, 2003. Crystal structural analysis of human serum albumin complexed with hemin and fatty acid. BMC Struct. Biol., 3: 6.
    CrossRef    PMid:12846933 PMCid:PMC166163    

Competing interests

The authors have no competing interests.

Open Access Policy

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Copyright

The authors have no competing interests.
ISSN (Online):  2044-2467
ISSN (Print):   2044-2459
Submit Manuscript
   Information
   Sales & Services
Home   |  Contact us   |  About us   |  Privacy Policy
Copyright © 2024. MAXWELL Scientific Publication Corp., All rights reserved